• Maintained measure of unity through trade and languages
• Principal bond was Arabic, language of Qur’an
• Borders were open across Islamic states
• With few barriers, traders dealt in various exotic goods
• Openness of borders extended to non-Muslims such as Tustari brothers
  • Jewish merchants from southern Iran
  • By 1026, established flourishing business in Egypt
  • Informal contacts allowed trade with Iran and Egypt
  • Held the highest rank in Jewish society