• “Biological old regime” limited population size and economy
  • Limits began to be lifted in century from 1750 to 1850
• People increasingly began to use steam-powered machines
  • Allowed escaping limitations of solar energy flows
• In biological old regime, agriculture was Asia’s advantage
  • India had 20:1 grain to seed ratio, while England only had 8:1
  • Indian textiles were cheaper than British textiles
  • Indian workers still lived similarly to British counterparts
  • For England, low yields → high-priced food → high wages → disadvantage
• Once factory productivity increased, English advocated for “free trade”
  • Abandoned mercantilist theory and tariffs on imports
  • Free trade became ideology of imperial Britain in nineteenth century
• Chinese economy improved production levels through use of markets
  • Specialized producers obtained food from other places
  • Upriver areas produced rice and exported it on boats
  • Were still under the influence of the biological old regime
• Industrial breakthrough came with creating first steam engine railway
• Time became more important as factory labor was paid by hours