• During 16th century, three land-based empires used gunpowder to grow
  • Safavid Empire: 1501-1736
  • Mughal Empire: 1526-1857
  • Ottoman Empire: 1299-1922
• Peaked in 16th century as they used military to access wealth of Arabian sea network
• All embraced Islam (Ottomans were Sunni, Safavids were Shiite, Mughals tolerant of all)
• Similar political and economic structures
  • Sons ascending throne, ruled through bureaucracy
  • Reliant on productive agriculture with surplus to tax